1 Introduction

This chapter introduces the significance of under-studied documents from 1553 to 1795 in the earliest Anglo-Chinese encounters, which are often overlooked. It discusses the early attempts at trading with China, the dispatch of the first official mission in 1787, and the forgotten historical documents including a letter from King George III to the Chinese emperor and instructions to the first ambassador. It also mentions the 1793 Qing Court Memorial and the 1795 reply from King George III to the Qianlong Emperor. The chapter emphasizes the importance of these documents in understanding the early Anglo-Chinese encounters and their relevance to today's relationship between China and the West.

2 From 1553 to 1583, the Explorations of the Northeast and Northwest Passages

- The Age of Discovery changed the world's view of the ocean as a transcontinental contact zone

- Admiral Zheng He's voyages didn't bring back much new knowledge to China

- England sought a new trade route to China and explored the Northeast Passage in 1553

- English monarchs sent letters to Chinese rulers seeking mutual trade and friendship, leading to three failed expeditions during the Elizabethan era.

- The failure of Macartney Embassy in 1793 had ideological roots in the 1553 letter, as they had incompatible views on equality, trade, and the role of merchants

3 The First British Embassy Sent to China in 1787

The 1787 embassy was the very first British embassy sent to imperial China, but it never arrived in Beijing. The letter of credence and instructions from King George III, as well as other documents and correspondence in the State Paper Office, the India House and the Board of Control, survived. The Chinese court had invited a mission of compliment, in response to a larger share of trade that Britain had secured since 1670. The instructions included great expectations and motivations behind the mission, such as drawing the tea trade and procuring a place for products and manufactures from India in China, as well as concerns to maintain honor and safety of merchants. In the eyes of the British, the Chinese emperor represented "wisdom and justice" that could redress the wrong. The negotiation agenda included mutually beneficial trade, obtaining a small tract of ground, and assurance that the aims were purely commercial. The instructions also included advice for the ambassador to keep a diary and the presence of an interpreter on the mission.

4 The Untold Stories of the Macartney Embassy

This chapter introduces the background of the Macartney Embassy, the return of Lord Macartney with the Chinese emperor’s gifts, and the poem written by the emperor. It explores the differences in perception of the British "gifts" and the Chinese view of them as "tributary" items. The chapter also discusses the European interest in exotic goods and the British misunderstanding of the Chinese court's interests, leading to the impression of British arrogance. The absence of missionaries in Beijing and the impact of European competitors on the British expedition are also examined, highlighting the knowledge deficit that the British faced during the Macartney Embassy and its implications.

5 Pride and Prejudice: From Mutual Benefit to Mutual Understanding

This chapter discussed the persistent British pursuit of free trade with China from 1553 to 1795 and the ongoing quest to forge a balanced relationship. It also explored China's emphasis on genuine mutual understanding over mutual benefits from trade. The chapter highlighted the recurring themes of open-door international trade and closed-door national security, as well as the mutually-held pride and mirror narrative of "humiliations" that continue to shadow bilateral relations. Additionally, it addressed the paradox of rejection and emulation between the two nations and emphasized the importance of self-reflection and transforming the relationship to enhance each other. The chapter concluded with a call to contemplate each other and generate new thinking about "we" in the future.