I. Introduction

It is pointed out that the French Classical period and the Enlightenment were intertwined, with the spirit of the 18th century emerging around 1680 and closely linked to the height of Louis XIV's absolute monarchy. In The Crisis of the European Mind: 1680–1715, Paul Hazard argues that a crisis in European thought occurred at that time, originating from the Renaissance, paving the way for the French Revolution, and constituting an extremely important event in intellectual history. This crisis took place during a transitional period between tradition and modernity, where thinkers such as Spinoza critiqued religious and monarchical authority, and the French intellectual sphere engaged in debates over faith, tradition, and the path of social development. The Age of Exploration, through Europe's contact with the "Other," prompted self-reflection, and China became a significant intellectual resource for European thinkers. Virgil Pinot studied the encounter between Chinese culture and the formation of modern French philosophy from 1640 to 1740, noting that new ideas emerged from the collision between traditional thought and foreign cultures, propelling the development of Enlightenment thought.

II. Chinese Arguments in Faith Debates

This section delves into the use and impact of Chinese elements as arguments in faith debates during the intellectual ferment in France at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. After Italian Jesuits Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci arrived in China during the Wanli era of the Ming Dynasty, they employed strategies of cultural accommodation and adaptive translation to integrate into Chinese society, allowing Chinese converts to observe traditional rituals. This initiated substantive dialogue between Western and Eastern civilizations. However, their successor, Niccolò Longobardo, questioned the "Confucian-Christian synthesis" strategy of the early missionaries in his writings, sparking discussions on the translation of religious terms and the atheistic tendencies of Confucianism. Charles Maigrot and others viewed Chinese ancestral and Confucian rites as heretical practices, leading to the "Chinese Rites Controversy," which persisted into the first half of the 18th century. The controversy escalated from internal Jesuit disputes to conflicts among various Roman Catholic orders and eventually became a cultural and diplomatic conflict between the Qing court and the Vatican, facilitating the continuous transmission of knowledge about Chinese history, religion, and social customs to Europe.

In France, during this period of transition from the Classical era to the Enlightenment, Chinese elements became an important subject of contemplation for thinkers. Isaac La Peyrère cited Chinese history in his works to argue that biblical history was not shared by all nations, sparking controversy. Blaise Pascal opposed the Jesuits' cultural accommodation strategy in China and was astounded by the antiquity of Chinese chronology compared to European history, considering it a theological issue. Voltaire, in his Essay on Universal History, included the civilizational history of Eastern Asian peoples, asserting that the Chinese should be discussed according to their own history, demonstrating a new global perspective. Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet and Voltaire represented old ideas and new thought respectively, with French thought bridging an era between them.

Religious figures, scholars, and travelers expressed curiosity or concern regarding Chinese historical chronology. Philippe Couplet published Tabula Chronologica Monarchiae Sinicae in Paris, acknowledging the antiquity of Chinese history but attempting to prove that the ancient Chinese descended from Noah and his descendants. In France, issues of faith persistently troubled the intellectual sphere, with atheism and deism becoming tools to challenge traditional religious theology. Pierre Bayle cited China as an argument against the prohibition of atheism, believing that Chinese tolerance provided support for European religious skepticism. Nicolas Malebranche explored the similarities and differences between the Christian "God" and the Chinese philosophical concept of "Li" through dialogue, attempting to persuade the Chinese of God's existence. Voltaire criticized Westerners for using narrow religious views to disparage and negate Chinese spiritual life and customs, arguing that the Chinese were not atheists but possessed their own religious beliefs. During the European intellectual crisis and into the Enlightenment, theologians and philosophers, from their respective positions and perspectives, observed Chinese historical chronology and ideas from afar, constructing a complex and contradictory image of China. China provided the French intellectual sphere with a reference for religious freedom and cultural diversity.

III. The Moral Teachings of the Chinese Philosopher Confucius

This section explores the reception and debates surrounding Chinese Confucianism in French intellectual circles at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. Confucianism entered Europe through translations by missionaries. Matteo Ricci recognized the importance of Confucian thought, and Nicolas Trigault's compilation of Ricci's journals provided material for La Mothe Le Vayer, who, in On the Virtue of Pagans, compared Confucius to Socrates and others, praising Confucius's moral teachings. However, François Fénelon expressed critical views on Confucius and Chinese culture in his Dialogues of the Dead. The publication of Confucius Sinarum Philosophus in 1687 promoted the dissemination of Confucianism in Europe. Jesuits, through translating Confucian classics, sought to identify ethical compatibilities between Confucianism and Christian doctrine. The book garnered widespread attention in European intellectual circles, receiving reviews in publications such as Nouvelles de la République des Lettres, Mémoires pour l'Histoire des Sciences et des Beaux-Arts, and Le Journal des Sçavans. Simon Foucher translated Confucian moral maxims in epistolary form, emphasizing their compatibility with Christian teachings. François Bernier's compilation and translation, Confucius or the Science of the Prince, highlighted the political ethics of Confucianism, attempting to incorporate it into the European "mirror for princes" educational tradition and encouraging the French monarchy to draw from Chinese moral ethics and statecraft. Bernier's translation work reflected his recognition of Confucian political views and his profound understanding of cultural differences between East and West. During this period, the reception and debates over Confucianism in French intellectual circles not only promoted cultural exchange between China and the West but also laid the groundwork for the development of French Enlightenment thought in the 18th century.

IV. Concluding Remarks

This section discusses the influence of Chinese civilization on France during the intellectual ferment at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. Europe was then in the glorious age of Louis XIV, and Chinese civilization was in no way inferior to Europe in certain aspects, even surpassing it in some fields. The French court and high society developed an interest in Chinese artifacts, while the intellectual community held complex attitudes toward Chinese thought and culture, ranging from acceptance to skepticism. The introduction of Chinese knowledge made European intellectuals aware of the relativity of traditional values, triggering an intellectual crisis. Simultaneously, Chinese literati's exposure to Western learning led to cognitive breakthroughs. Amid cultural collisions, both sides pondered how to accept the culture of the Other while upholding their own core values. Chinese culture exerted a significant influence on France, particularly during the stage when French thinkers were reflecting on traditional religious, political, and economic thought and establishing the foundations of social science. Although France ultimately chose a different path of development, China once served as an Eastern mirror for reference, with its influence being relative and important within a specific historical period.