This paper examines records about China in ancient Arab maps and geographical works against the backdrop of frequent Sino-Arab exchanges from the 7th to the 15th century. These maps and works served as crucial sources of knowledge for understanding Eurasian-African trade routes, reflecting humanity's evolving comprehension of the world across different periods. Arabs made significant achievements in geography and cartography along the maritime Silk Road, as seen in works such as Akhbār al-Ṣīn wa al-Hind and Kitāb al-Masālik wa al-Mamālik. While scholars worldwide have laid a foundation for the study of Arab cartography, research on Chinese records in Arab maps from the 7th to the 15th century remains relatively underdeveloped in China. This paper aims to systematically organize these records, analyze the image and perception of China they convey, and explore the role and impact of Sino-Arab interactions in the construction of the maritime Silk Road system.

1. The Development and Characteristics of Arab Cartography from the 7th to the 15th Century

This section delves into the origins and evolution of Arab cartography and geography. During the medieval period, Arab cartography was closely intertwined with geography, benefiting from the flourishing of scientific activities under the Abbasid Caliphate, particularly the translation movement organized by Caliph al-Ma'mun. Ptolemy's Geography was translated into Arabic, exerting a profound influence on Arab cartography. Advances in Arab cartography were evident in the determination of Earth's longitude and latitude, as well as the stimulation of geographical studies by military conquests, administrative needs, and trade activities. The spread of papermaking also facilitated progress in geography and cartography. Arab maps were diverse in type, including religious atlases, trade route maps, world maps, regional maps, military maps, city plans, and travel itineraries.

Prominent Arab cartographers such as al-Khwārizmī, al-Iṣṭakhrī, Ibn Ḥawqal, Ibn al-Wardī, and al-Idrīsī produced maps with stylized features, often oriented southward, which significantly influenced later cartography. Al-Khwārizmī's Ṣūrat al-Arḍ is regarded as the first map since the rise of Islam, though the original has been lost. The Balkhī school broke with tradition by creating maps depicting physical features, influencing later works. Al-Idrīsī's world map synthesized earlier Arab geographical writings and is considered the most complex world map of its time.

The characteristics of Arab cartography include: influences from foreign cultures, particularly Greek and Persian; attempts to depict the entire world, reflecting Greek geographical traditions; highly stylized symbols, such as circular maps and the symbolic representation of the "Encircling Ocean"; reliance on firsthand observation, as Arab geographers gathered data through fieldwork; and limitations in records about "China," influenced by Ptolemaic traditions and information biases. As interactions increased, Arab geographers' understanding of China gradually improved, though elements of imitation and hearsay persisted.

2. China in Arab Maps

Records in Arab maps depict China as the "Seventh Sea" among the "Seven Seas." Al-Khwārizmī's Ṣūrat al-Arḍ first used "al-Ṣīn" to refer to China, describing southern China and three port cities. Akhbār al-Ṣīn wa al-Hind detailed the maritime Silk Road route from the Persian Gulf to Guangzhou. In the works of al-Masʿūdī and al-Idrīsī, the "China Sea" was depicted as the easternmost ocean. Al-Idrīsī's world map divided the Earth into seven regions, with China belonging to the easternmost zone. Medieval Arab merchants documented routes to China, such as the sea route from Mesopotamia to the East in Kitāb al-Masālik wa al-Mamālik and Ibn Baṭṭūṭa's travel itinerary to China. Arab maps' understanding of China evolved from vague imaginings to specific geography, coastlines, routes, and depictions. Al-Bīrūnī was the first Arab geographer to record the relationship between the Khitan and the Liao Empire with China, updating Arab knowledge of China's political divisions. Al-Idrīsī's maps outlined China's coastline, mentioning major cities, trade systems, judicial appeals, and the Yellow River as one of the world's largest and most famous rivers. Yāqūt's Muʿjam al-Buldān widely disseminated knowledge about China, enhancing Arab understanding. As knowledge deepened, ancient maps not only reflected key Silk Road routes, itineraries, and ports but also vividly illustrated Sino-Arab interactions through text and imagery. Ibn Baṭṭūṭa demonstrated that during the Mongol era, more Arabs used systematic maritime trade networks to reach China, connecting the eastern and western ends of Eurasia via the Indian Ocean. Changes in Chinese administrative divisions across different periods in Arab maps reflect Arab geographers' timely updates on China's political landscape.

3. Factors Driving Arab Maps' Records on China from the 7th to the 15th Century

The transformation of China's image in Arab maps from vague to accurate was driven by commercial demand, official support, and technological advancements. In terms of commerce, the growth of maritime Silk Road trade facilitated the spread of information about Chinese goods and routes, positioning China as a key participant. Officially, Sino-Arab diplomatic exchanges provided a political framework for economic and cultural interactions, while the Arab translation movement promoted the dissemination of Chinese geographical knowledge. Technologically, advancements in papermaking, shipbuilding, and the compass improved navigation, expanding channels for the transmission of geographical information about China. These factors collectively propelled the development of Arab cartographic records on China.

4. Conclusion

Historical records of Sino-Arab maritime exchanges shaped a shared maritime civilization, fostering interactions between the two great civilizations through travelogues, geographical texts, and ancient maps. Ancient Sino-Arab navigation activities enhanced mutual understanding between East and West, broadening new horizons for civilizational dialogue. The enduring friendship between China and the Arab world, embodied in the millennia-old "Silk Road memory," reflects the spirit of openness, inclusiveness, cooperation, and mutual benefit, forming the foundation for bilateral collaboration. From the 7th to the 15th century, Arab cartographic records on China evolved from mythical and romanticized portrayals to relatively accurate depictions, showcasing Arab geographers' deepening understanding of Chinese geography. These records vividly illustrate the close economic ties, cultural affinity, and emotional bonds between China and the Arab world as key participants in the maritime Silk Road.