1 Introduction

Discussed the transformation of diplomatic concepts in the late Qing Dynasty after the Opium War, from initial rejection to later active application and adherence to modern diplomatic rules. Under the concept of "Huayi" and the traditional feudal system, the transformation of diplomatic concepts among the rulers and officials of the late Qing Dynasty was full of difficulties and twists and turns. The Ili negotiation between China and Russia was an important practice of the Qing court's use of modern diplomatic rules to constrain Russia's rights and interests through negotiations. The existing research lacks sufficient discussion on the application of modern diplomatic rules by the Qing court in the Ili negotiations. This article aims to deepen the understanding of the Sino Russian Ili negotiations and the diplomatic history of the late Qing Dynasty.

2 Foreign Missions and Self Strengthening Talents: Issues Surrounding the International Diplomatic Rules of Admiring and Generous Missions

Discussed the transformation of the Qing court's diplomatic concept during the late Qing Dynasty, especially in the context of the Chonghou envoy to Russia, how the Qing court began to apply and follow international diplomatic rules. In 1871, Russia invaded the Ili region, and the Qing court faced diplomatic negotiations with Russia after Zuo Zongtang recaptured Xinjiang. As the first Qing envoy to Russia, Chonghou was tasked with the mission of reclaiming Ili through negotiations. After the Opium War, the Qing court began to adopt international public law to safeguard national rights and gradually recognized the importance of sending envoys abroad. Although initially resistant to foreign envoys, the Qing court gradually changed its mindset and began to send envoys to major contracting countries through multiple negotiations with the West. The appointment of Chonghou reflected the Qing court's adaptation to Western diplomatic rules, and he was granted the authority of "acting as a minister with full authority", demonstrating the Qing court's initiative in diplomacy. Chonghou accumulated rich experience in negotiations with Western countries and became a talent among Qing officials familiar with Westernization and diplomacy. The appointment of Chong Hou by the Qing court reflects a shift in its foreign policy, from passive acceptance to active adaptation to Western diplomatic rules to protect national interests.

3 Legal Basis for Refusal and Compliance: Controversy over Chonghou's Unauthorized Contract Signing

In the third year of the Guangxu reign, Chonghou, as the first ambassador to Russia, negotiated and signed a treaty with the Russian side without authorization. The Qing court was shocked by this and sought remedial measures. Li Hongzhang, Shen Baozhen, Zuo Zongtang and other important officials hold different views on Chonghou's actions and the legal validity of his treaties. Li Hongzhang believes that treaties have legal effect and should not be breached; Shen Baozhen believed that treaties without the approval of the court were not reliable; Zuo Zongtang, from the perspective of strength, believed that the treaty would be a disgrace to the country. The Qing court ultimately decided not to approve Chongyue and appointed Zeng Jize as the ambassador to Russia to renegotiate the Ili issue, citing Chonghou's "violation of training and exceeding authority". This decision by the Qing court reflects a gradual adaptation to international diplomatic rules and a rejection of treaty worship, while also demonstrating the Qing Dynasty's modern shift in diplomatic concepts.

4. Refusal, amendment, and establishment of a new treaty: negotiations after the rejection of the treaty

Discussed the diplomatic strategies and actions of the Qing court in the face of the issue of respecting treaties. The Qing court did not completely reject Chongyue, but chose to renegotiate some unacceptable terms. In the absence of a clear attitude from Russia, the Qing court strengthened its border defense to prevent Russia from provoking a war, and instructed Zeng Jize to maintain his position and negotiate according to the negotiation plan provided by the Prime Minister's Office when sending envoys to Russia. The Qing court's conviction of Chonghou and appointment of a new ambassador to Russia demonstrated its determination to refuse the treaty, and was also influenced by international public opinion, ultimately deciding to release Chonghou to seek Western support. Although Zeng Jize's identity was questioned in the negotiations with Russia, he ultimately successfully conveyed the position of the Qing court and reached a new treaty with Russia. During this process, the Qing court had insufficient understanding of international diplomatic rules, but it also demonstrated its flexibility in diplomacy and sensitivity to the international situation. In the end, China and Russia avoided war through negotiations and re signed the "China Russia Amendment Treaty", each gaining important benefits. After completing the signing, Zeng Jize gave up his title of plenipotentiary minister according to the Qing Dynasty's system, and the Qing court officially approved the treaty six months later.

5 additional discussions

Discussed the transformation of China's diplomatic concept and the application and adherence to diplomatic rules during the late Qing Dynasty. When dealing with the opium issue, Lin Zexu referred to the "Laws and Regulations of the Various Countries in Sedar," but the Qing court still dominated by the concept of the Heavenly Kingdom. After the Second Opium War, enlightened officials in the Qing court, such as Prince Gong Yi, began to change their diplomatic concepts and promote changes in the diplomatic system. In 1861, the Prime Minister's Office for Foreign Affairs was established, which began to make limited use of international public law to handle diplomatic affairs. The negotiation between China and Russia in Ili was an important experience for the Qing court to move towards modern diplomatic rules, reflecting its exploration of the deployment of envoys and the authorization of plenipotentiary envoys. There were differences within the Qing court regarding the legitimacy of the Chongyue Treaty, reflecting the popularization of international diplomatic rules. Russia paid attention to the rights obtained after the signing of the Chongyue Treaty, and the Qing court did not fully rely on international rules when dealing with disputes. Zeng Jize achieved a certain diplomatic victory by exchanging some rights through a reasonable and well founded diplomatic strategy. The modern diplomatic rules under international public law are essentially still a social Darwinism of the law of the jungle. Western countries use modern diplomatic rules to undermine China's traditional foreign logic, and their international rules have hegemonic and power politics connotations. More than a hundred years ago, the Qing court struggled with modernization under the impact of the West. Now, as the initiator of the new order of the community with a shared future for mankind, China is facing risks and challenges. China needs to learn from historical civilization, absorb the achievements of other social developments, and contribute to the international order, rules, and new forms of human civilization.