"Bildung" is a core concept in modern German intellectual and cultural history, originating in the late 18th century. It is highly abstract and complex, making it difficult to find an accurate equivalent in other languages. The term derives from the verb "bilden" (to shape, to form), denoting both the process and the result of an action, literally meaning to shape or form according to a certain image or prototype. In Old High German, "Bildung" referred to imagination, imitation, or imprinting, bearing a kinship with the "primordial image." The Grimm Brothers' German Dictionary traces the evolution of "Bildung," which developed from the Latin root "imago" (image, portrait), gradually shifting from the nominal sense of "image" or "form" to the verbal sense of "shaping" or "forming," and came to be widely used in abstract, spiritual, and intellectual domains. The modern Duden Dictionary defines "Bildung" as the development and cultivation of the mind and spirit, as well as human education (Erziehung). The Brockenhaus Dictionary interprets it as "the shaping of a person's intellectual, spiritual, cultural, and social capacities," noting its roots in religious, mystical, and philosophical traditions. Since "Bildung" encompasses personal education, self-formation, and holistic development, some scholars translate it as "xiuyang" (修养, self-cultivation), a rendering recognized in Chinese German literary studies. In modern Chinese, other common translations of "Bildung" include "jiaohua" (教化, edification), "jiaoyu" (教育, education), "wenhua" (文化, culture), "jiaoyang" (教养, upbringing), "peixun" (培训, training), "peiyang" (培养, nurturing), "peiyu" (培育, cultivation), "xuntao" (熏陶, influence), "taoye" (陶冶, refinement), "gouxing" (构形, configuration), "chengxing" (成形, formation), "zaoxing" (造形, molding), and more.

I. The Concept of "Xiuyang" Before the Enlightenment

This section explores the historical origins and evolution of the concept of "xiuyang." Heinz-Elmar Tenorth notes that "xiuyang" is not unique to Germany but has a broad historical background. The ancient Greek "paideia" corresponds to the German "Bildung," encompassing education and personal development. In The Republic, Plato views "xiuyang" as a process of turning from appearances to the world of ideas, illustrated by the "allegory of the cave" to distinguish between the "cultivated" and the "uncultivated." Aristotle emphasizes the close relationship between "paideia" and the polis, advocating for a unified public education. In Christian thought, the original meaning of "Bildung" can be traced to the "image of God (Imago Dei)." Augustine proposes that schooling should primarily use the Bible as its textbook. In the late Middle Ages, mystic theologians combined Christian thought with Neoplatonism, developing the theory that "man is the image of God." Meister Eckhart links "Bildung" to spiritualization, viewing the process of "xiuyang" as a return to the divine image. Jacob Burckhardt's research shows that modern education originated during the Italian Renaissance of the 14th and 15th centuries, where tensions existed between humanist education and educational institutions. Renaissance humanism elevated the status of humanity, with Pico della Mirandola emphasizing the diversity of individual potential and the key role of education. In the 17th century, Comenius elaborates on methods of human education in The Great Didactic, stressing the value and importance of education.

II. The Classical Concept of "Xiuyang" During the Enlightenment

In the late 17th century, John Locke, in Some Thoughts Concerning Education, highlights the importance of education for gentlemen, emphasizing practical knowledge, manners, and a sense of contribution to the nation. By the 18th century, with socioeconomic and scientific advancements, individual autonomy gained prominence, and the Pietist movement fostered the formation of individualistic ideas. Shaftesbury's "inner form" influenced German intellectual life, promoting the secularization, humanization, and pedagogicalization of the "xiuyang" concept. During the Enlightenment, anthropology and pedagogy flourished, discussions on human ideals intensified, and the advent of the Age of Reason shook religious foundations, with education seen as a means to realize intellectual power. Kant posits that enlightenment is the process of individuals using reason to educate themselves. "Xiuyang" becomes a key term of the era, broader in meaning and application than mere education, involving individual formation and an internal, autonomous process of personal refinement. The classical concept of "xiuyang" is a complex framework integrating multiple schools of thought and cultural traditions, emphasizing individual autonomy and rational self-determination. Advances in 18th-century botany furthered the secularization of "xiuyang," with humans seen as capable of autonomously deciding their own growth and development. The classical view advocates the interplay of innate traits and environmental factors, involving the universal shaping of inherent potential within contingent circumstances. The "complete human being" becomes an ideal upheld by the educated class, emphasizing the harmonious unity of intellect, emotion, morality, and practice. Schiller achieves human wholeness through aesthetic education, uniting the natural and rational human. The classical "xiuyang" ideal connects individual formation with society and humanity, becoming a core element of bourgeois identity construction. Herder links "xiuyang" to the shaping of nations and humanity, while Kant stresses the importance of individual education for all humankind. Classical "xiuyang" thinkers sought to elevate German cultural, moral, and political character through individual cultivation, aiming for societal, national, and state perfection. This concept harbored the potential to dismantle feudal hierarchies, embodying humanist ideals.

III. The Concept of "Xiuyang" After the 19th Century

After the 19th century, the concept of "xiuyang" entered practical realms under Humboldt's influence, achieving national and societal development through educational reforms. Humboldt established the humanistic Gymnasium system and the University of Berlin, emphasizing the continuity and indivisibility of education, as well as the university's role in academic thought and moral-spiritual cultivation. His educational ideals contrasted with contemporary bourgeois and vocational education views, advocating for the elevation of human personality and universal identity. Prussian educational reforms cultivated a new type of individual, seen as the foundation for a new national and social order. However, during the Restoration period, the German government adopted conservative educational policies, clashing with neohumanist ideals. After the 1848 revolution, "xiuyang" served a stabilizing function for the bourgeoisie. Following the establishment of the German Empire, "xiuyang" was used to strengthen imperial spiritual cohesion, becoming a symbol of German identity. With industrial and technological advancements, education became more closely tied to the economy, requiring large numbers of specialized technical professionals. The state assumed control of schools, forming an integrated system. Yet the core idea of universal "xiuyang" could not be fully realized, its meaning narrowed, and its critical elements weakened. Nietzsche criticized contemporary educational institutions for deviating from their original lofty aims, with money becoming the goal and education subordinated to state interests. University education became specialized and pragmatic, hindering holistic and profound individual formation, producing only "experts" in narrow fields. When Humboldt founded the University of Berlin, he argued that university education should not serve direct, specific purposes but should shape individuals. However, in the process of industrialization and modernization, the classical "xiuyang" ideal was overshadowed by instrumental rationality and mass culture. Nietzsche satirized the "cultivated person" as a "knowledge philistine," standing in opposition to poets, artists, or true cultural figures. The social status implied by "xiuyang" shifted in the 19th century, becoming closely linked to the concept of "property"—something to be owned, creating privilege, wealth, and prestige. The concepts of "xiuyang" and the "cultivated person" gradually became social status markers, transforming from a force breaking class barriers into a factor reinforcing class rigidity. As "xiuyang" institutions expanded and diversified, the designation of "cultivated person" became more generalized. After the 20th century, scholars proposed the concept of the "Bildungsbürger" (cultivated bourgeois) to describe the phenomenon of the "cultivated" class accompanying "xiuyang." "Xiuyang" evolved from a clearly defined identity concept to one with vague and complex connotations. After World War I, the German Empire collapsed, plunging the nation into turmoil and undermining traditional "xiuyang (educational) values." The postwar German intellectual community engaged in introspection and reflection. Classical philologists initiated the "Third Wave of Classical Humanism," briefly reviving classical "xiuyang" ideals. After World War II, the Third Wave declined. East Germany failed to preserve the old connection between education and the labor movement, while West Germany began discussing "citizens' educational rights" in the 1960s, treating educational resources as social resources to be developed and advocating for "emancipatory education" as a goal. From 1800 to the post-20th century, Germany underwent profound changes in its political system, economic structure, and intellectual culture. As a product of specific historical conditions, "xiuyang" experienced significant shifts in meaning and status over time. As an idealistic concept, it gradually lost its original luster in the face of national and societal realities, becoming reduced to slogans and dogma within institutionalized frameworks. In modern educational systems, "xiuyang" has been incorporated into various fields of study, linked to "religious xiuyang," "philosophical xiuyang," "artistic xiuyang," "mathematical xiuyang," "culinary xiuyang," and more. In recent years, research on "political xiuyang" has grown in German education. Conceptually, "xiuyang" is nearly synonymous with "education," yet linguistically it retains independence, hinting at its unique qualities. As a concept proposed by intellectual elites around 1800, "xiuyang" embodied the bourgeoisie's ideals for themselves, their nation, and humanity. However, it was confined to a narrow, homogeneous educated class, holding limited substantive significance for most citizens. In the parallel processes of secularization and industrialization, the classical meaning of "xiuyang" faced challenges from state administration, economic development, and modern thought. The "xiuyang" ideal was never fully realized, but this does not render classical "xiuyang" theory empty. Early 19th-century neohumanist education cultivated learned and morally refined individuals, and 20th-century youth movements, avant-garde movements, and reform movements were not unrelated to the self-critical potential of "xiuyang." Despite multiple historical challenges, the pursuit of human perfection and a better society has never ceased. Thus, in contemporary society, in-depth discussions on "xiuyang" remain highly significant.