The plague outbreak in Northeast China in 1910, known as the Gengxu Plague, was a major epidemic with international repercussions. Russia paid particular attention to the epidemic response due to the Chinese Eastern Railway. While domestic academia has conducted in-depth research on the Gengxu Plague, few studies have utilized original Russian archives and newspapers, especially regarding Russia's role in plague prevention along the Chinese Eastern Railway. The Russian State Historical Archives house a vast collection of epidemic prevention records related to the Chinese Eastern Railway. This article provides an in-depth exploration of plague prevention along the Chinese Eastern Railway from 1910 to 1911 by organizing, translating, and analyzing Russian archival documents and newspaper reports.

1 The Occurrence of Plague Along the Chinese Eastern Railway

Since its construction in 1897, the Chinese Eastern Railway corridor had frequently experienced epidemics, including the plague. In 1899, British doctors identified the first plague case in Yingkou, prompting the Russian side to quickly establish epidemic prevention bureaus and plague committees, dispatching medical personnel to assist in containment efforts. The plague ravaged Yingkou for four months, resulting in 1,370 deaths. Outbreaks recurred in Yingkou and nearby villages in 1901 and 1903, and cases also appeared in Manzhouli and Zalainuoer in 1905. In 1910, Manzhouli reported its first plague case, and the epidemic spread along the railway, primarily due to the rise in marmot trade and Chinese laborers contracting pneumonic plague from infected marmots. From 1899 to 1907, frequent outbreaks along the Chinese Eastern Railway failed to draw significant attention from either government. Behind Russia's construction of the railway lay ambitions to expand its sphere of influence in China, but the railway's development also facilitated the spread of infectious diseases along its route, severely affecting local populations. Facing the 1910 plague, the Chinese Eastern Railway lacked a robust prevention system and effective epidemic control measures, leading to numerous issues in containment efforts.

2 Problems and Solutions in Plague Prevention Along the Chinese Eastern Railway

After the plague was detected in Manzhouli in 1910, the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs swiftly established a High Committee for Plague Prevention to address the outbreak. Due to inadequate early containment, the plague spread rapidly along the Chinese Eastern Railway, resulting in severe shortages of personnel and funding. The Chinese Eastern Railway Board addressed these gaps by dispatching additional medical staff and allocating epidemic prevention funds. As the outbreak worsened, the shortage of Russian doctors in Harbin hampered containment efforts. The Board decided to transfer medical personnel from St. Petersburg and elsewhere to assist in Harbin, convened special meetings to review the situation, share experiences, and approve new regulations, and resolved to deploy medical teams and expand hospital capacity. Despite offering high compensation, few doctors were willing to participate, leading to the recruitment of medical students from Tomsk State University and temporary military doctors. To strengthen containment guidance, a medical inspection team led by plague expert Zabolotny was dispatched to Manchuria. By January 1911, the plague in Harbin peaked, and with the Board's support, reinforcements and medical students arrived, alleviating personnel shortages. Given the high risks, the Board provided generous compensation and insurance for medical workers, including financial settlements for those who died from infection. During the outbreak, a special committee was established to review claims related to infected personnel. Despite active recruitment efforts, the hazardous nature of the work made staffing difficult. In early 1911, as the situation worsened, the Chinese Eastern Railway Administration requested additional funding. The Board approved allocations for Harbin and Ussuri stations and increased funding after Professor Zabolotny's arrival. The State Duma convened to discuss plague containment in Manchuria, and the Ministry of Internal Affairs passed a bill allocating 4 million rubles for emergency cholera and plague prevention.

3 Internal Conflicts and Disputes in Plague Prevention Along the Chinese Eastern Railway

During the 1910 plague response, conflicts arose among Russian containment agencies, management, and medical personnel. Power struggles erupted between Chinese Eastern Railway doctors and Board-appointed officials, while unclear jurisdictional boundaries led to frequent disputes among agencies. After the Harbin outbreak, the railway established a General Executive Sanitary Committee, but disagreements with the Harbin Municipal Council hindered containment efforts. Following recommendations from General Horvath and Professor Zabolotny, a Plague Prevention Bureau was formed as the supreme authority. In January 1911, Harbin's containment agencies were reorganized, excluding local Russian doctors and incorporating "outsiders," exacerbating tensions. The satirical cartoon The Battle Against Plague in Manchuria: Koksharov's Struggle highlighted the Board's missteps in leadership appointments.

Disagreements also emerged among Chinese Eastern Railway management over deploying additional personnel. While the Chief Medical Inspector of the Ministry of Internal Affairs supported reinforcements, the Chief Military Sanitary Inspector opposed the move. Board members raised objections regarding compensation for medical students working in Manchuria. Russian sanitation workers hired by the Railway Administration resigned due to high infection risks and low pay, leading to the recruitment of Chinese workers for hazardous duties. Zabolotny's team opposed large-scale quarantine measures, arguing that medical facilities were inadequate. General Horvath proposed sealing off the Chinese-administered Fujiadian district, but Chinese authorities refused. Finance Minister Kokovtsov objected to Russian-led containment actions in Chinese jurisdictions, asserting that Russia lacked enforcement authority beyond its concessions.

Internal conflicts among Russian containment personnel primarily involved Harbin-based "local" doctors and Board-appointed officials. After Professor Zabolotny's team arrived in Harbin, their critiques of containment efforts provoked resentment. Zabolotny argued that the plague resembled the Odessa strain and should be combated by exterminating rats, but Harbin doctors deemed rat-catching futile. The newspaper Novaya Zhizn satirized Zabolotny's misjudgments in a cartoon. Tensions between Zabolotny and Russian doctors became a focal point. By spring 1911, some Russian doctors were excluded from the International Plague Conference, which they attributed to Zabolotny's interference, further escalating disputes.

The General Executive Sanitary Committee, as the leading containment body, held seven meetings, but excessive bureaucracy and multi-level reporting hindered efficiency. The Plague Prevention Bureau spent considerable time drafting measures, yet the outbreak remained uncontrolled, fueling public frustration with formalism. A cartoon mocked the Bureau's inefficacy despite heavy paperwork. The Harbin Gazette published a resolution banning marmot hunting, which was dismissed as meaningless. Vaccination was an effective prevention method, but medical staff found that single-dose recipients faced high reinfection rates, leading to resistance. Excessive focus on procedural formalities compromised containment effectiveness.

4 Conclusion

The study highlights that infectious disease outbreaks along the Chinese Eastern Railway were linked to poor working conditions and inadequate medical care, with the 1910 plague posing a major challenge. Flaws in the prevention system and oversight mechanisms hampered containment efforts. Excessive media praise for Professor Zabolotny demoralized other doctors, despite the collective effort required. Russian doctors resented the media's neglect of their contributions. The 1910–1911 containment efforts held significant value for Russia's epidemic prevention system and infectious disease medicine. Wu Lien-teh collaborated with Russian authorities to establish a Sino-Russian Joint Health Committee, underscoring the critical role of bilateral cooperation in combating the plague. Wu's contributions were later recognized in Russian academia. Researching archival materials from the Russian State Historical Archives enables scholars to systematically study the history of epidemic prevention along the Chinese Eastern Railway, advancing deeper exploration of Russia's medical history.