Decadence as a European problem

Decadent literature originated in France and later spread to countries such as England, Germany, and Italy, presenting different modes of thinking and critical methods under different cultural backgrounds. The term decadence comes from Latin and means decline, decadence, and decadence. During the social changes in 19th century Europe, people felt a spiritual crisis and cultural decline, and the word decadence revived. Decadence is related to multiple aspects such as regime change, social development, and philosophical thinking, reflecting different semantic connotations. In the 1860s and 1870s, French writers Baudelaire and Verlaine introduced the concept of decadence into the realm of literature and poetics, retaining negative connotations such as moral decay and luxurious decadence. Decadent literature is described as a stylistic phenomenon and autonomous literary form characterized by complexity, subtle use of vocabulary and language, evoking unexpressed, vague, and fleeting things. Enlightenment philosophers Montesquieu and Rousseau emphasized that decadence represents the opposition between nature and culture (civilization). Desiray Nizar introduced the decadent style into the field of literary criticism, criticizing Hugo for over depicting, highlighting details, and elevating imagination to the point of destroying reason. Baudelaire and Gautier described their writing style as decadent, calling it a modern, anti rhetorical reevaluation of values, opposing mediocre "progress", and advocating decadence as an independent artistic stance. British poet and literary critic Arthur Simmons regards decadence in literature as a general category, including symbolism and impressionism, defined as a strong sense of self-awareness, an insatiable curiosity for research, excessive refinement, and spiritual and moral decline, referred to as "a new, beautiful, and interesting disease". The social environment and interaction among writers in Paris provide an opportunity for this intersection, and Malam, with the posture of "prophet and pope, mysterious and theoretical leader," brings "fascinating and inspiring conversations" to young poets. Maurice Barres referred to this group of writers as the Decadent, but called Maratha the Symbolist. In 1884, Schumann introduced decadence into aesthetics through his novel "Counter Current". Anatole Baru used the influence of Schumann's works to establish the magazine "Decadent" in 1886, providing a definition and organization for the decadence movement. Decadent writers seek to break free from mediocrity and boredom, attempting to shock and subvert social expectations and values. At the end of the 19th century, various literary and artistic trends and schools of thought frequently changed and intertwined with each other. The contradiction between the accelerated social development process and the decadent doomsday sentiment from 1880 to before World War I became a hallmark of early literary modernity. The core of the Decadent Movement is the expression change brought about by a strong sense of self-awareness, based on psychological states and self-awareness tendencies, without obvious symbolic characteristics. It can be understood as a rebellion against the bourgeoisie, escaping from the new ideals of civilization and the secular reality characterized by mediocrity and boredom, often related to themes such as disease, death, decay, and decline. Due to the delay in concept dissemination and differences in social environment, the German commentary community has not made convincing or significant promotional statements.

The Spread of Decadent Literature in Germany

At the end of the 19th century, the social and cultural atmosphere in Germany was characterized by patriarchy and conservatism under the rule of Wilhelm II, while the belief in progress promoted imperial prosperity and created a tense relationship with social conservatism. The French decadent movement was replaced by symbolism, and decadence emerged as a stylistic term in German literature, describing the modernity of post naturalism. Modern literature in Vienna was formed under the influence of French literature and became a source of influence for decadent German literature. Under the influence of perceptual philosophy and psychology, self-awareness and patterns of perception of existence have changed, and Freud's psychology has brought a social psychological analysis perspective to literature. Hermann Baar proposed a literary manifesto centered around "nerves", advocating that artists seek the "truth of sensation" through sensation. Under the background of natural science development, human perception and cognition are strongly influenced, and nerves have become the medium of decadent culture. In his essay "The Decadent", Bar pointed out the thirst of German youth for "decadence", believing that decadent literature focuses on anxiety, the joy of human creation, and the fanaticism for mysticism. Writers use the readmission of romanticism to describe their inner world and develop artistic methods for constructing fantasy reality. Max Nordau linked biological decay with cultural decadence, believing that culture and its dissatisfaction stem from intellectuals. Nietzsche viewed history as a process of decline and decadence, believing that decadence is a modern disease. German decadent literature expresses observations and reflections on social issues, with themes centered around the decline of culture and society, including superficiality, disgust, weakness, and death. Writers lack clear guidelines and norms, and their decadent characteristics are difficult to distinguish from other styles such as impressionism, symbolism, and aestheticism. There is a clear intertextual relationship between German decadent literature and French decadent works, reflecting a comprehensive abnormality in aesthetic taste and lifestyle norms. The themes of isolation and disability have expanded into the pathologies of families and ethnic groups, forming a writing paradigm of decline in German decadent literature.

Three German issues?

In the 19th century, decadent consciousness received attention in literature and art, and decadent discourse was prominent in French literature. Around 1880, Germany experienced a sense of modernity, and from 1886 to 1887, it entered the era of modernity, breaking away from classical norms and pursuing modernity, progress, and innovation. In the mid-19th century, people characterized the era as "modern" and "decadent", and the field of literary research also began to use "decadent" to describe artistic trends. Around 1900, decadence as a discourse phenomenon and trend in German literature received attention. Eckart von Sido described decadence as a period of cultural decline and moral confusion, rejecting traditional values and turning towards hedonism and nihilism. Xiduo analyzed art movements such as Symbolism, Art Nouveau, and Expressionism, incorporating the study of decadent literature into the mainstream perspective of academia. Carolina Pross raised the question of whether decadence is a German discourse, emphasizing that German decadence discourse is different from other countries, especially in terms of content and language expression, which is more introverted. The borrowing and rewriting of French nouns in German indicates that the German academic community views the problem of decadence as a European phenomenon. In 1929, Walter Rem associated decadent literature with Renaissance worship and praised Heinrich Mann's novel "The Goddesses" as a glorification of cruel and immoral life. Karl Heinz Polle proposed that the critical tradition of the German bourgeoisie is related to extreme decadence criticism. In the 1930s, literary history research often evaluated decadence as decay, abnormality, and unhealthy. The uncommon way of commenting in non German speaking regions is to discuss decadent literature under the concept of "neuroart", which originates from Hermann Baar's "neuroaesthetic" manifesto. Within the scope of German literature, decadent literature is classified as a specific component of 'end of century literature'. In the history of German literature and culture, the literature at the turn of the century is reflected in various ideologies such as symbolism, impressionism, and neo romanticism, so 'end of the century' is a broad term. The study of "decadent literature" in Germany is often drowned out in the overly complex research of "late century literature". German decadent literature has developed explicit or implicit associations with disciplines such as sociology and psychology, enriching the cultural landscape of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Compared with the works of the French decadent school, German decadent literature highlights the literary functions of metaphor and analogy that extend from organic functions such as transmission, stimulation, and sensation, as well as the knowledge paradigm influenced by psychological keywords such as unconsciousness, madness, and deviation. Although decadent literature may be interchangeable with symbolism and expressionism in text analysis and research, decadence is considered one of the faces of modernity.

Four paradigms for the study of decadent German literature

The chapter on the research paradigm of decadent literature in Germany points out that the German academic community is relatively cautious about the study of decadent literature, while international interest in this area is increasing. Kisel explored whether decadence should be studied as an "ism", emphasizing the alternation of various "isms" in the development of modernity, such as symbolism, aestheticism, etc., which together shape the sense of modernity. Hermann Baar analyzed the relationship between these 'isms', including organic development, strong opposition, and combination. The status of decadent literature in German literature research has declined, but the German academic community still uses two methods to describe literature during the "decadent" period: as a collection of decadent themes and topics, or as an object of discourse and narrative studies. Wolfgang Dietrich Rasch emphasized that decadent literature is a problem of "literary atmosphere", which should not be limited to the definition of time, but rather a complex phenomenon full of contradictions. In the mid-19th century, the concept of decadence was redefined in France, shifting from a derogatory term to a positive self description by modern poets, creating a new aesthetic model. Lash classified the works of German and Austrian writers under the theme of decadence and examined their status around 1900, but this approach tends to blur the boundary between biography and criticism. Gotthard Weinberg revised the research method of viewing decadent literature as a "thematic complex" and believed that literature is an autonomous, modern, and structurally determined language process. Dieter Katz questioned the thematic research method, arguing that it ignored the German silence of decadence as a discourse. Prolos believes that typical characters, language forms, and textual processes should be analyzed from a narrative perspective to condense the decadent literary model. German modernist works are often placed in the category of "decadence", closely related to modernity, indicating that German decadence literature is closely related to modern humanity and living conditions, and is inseparable from historical, social, and developmental changes.